Contents:

• "Closure" of the OT Canon
• Apocalypticism in the OT Pseudepigrapha
• Daniel and "the Human One" (or "Son of Man")
• Maccabean Martyrs
• Origins of the Essenes
• Rise of the Perushim (Pharisees)
• Jewish Attitudes toward Rome
• Jesus and Apocalypticism
• Jesus spoke in parables
• The Lord's Prayer
• Apocalypticism in Q?
• Jesus and the Zealots?
• John the Baptist and Qumran?
• Jesus and Qumran?

"Closure" of the OT Canon

• ca. first century C.E., Jewish leaders begin to sort out writings; they believe the age of prophecy ended with Ezra/Nehemiah (ca. 444 B.C.E.), thus no later writings admitted to the OT canon
• Daniel, though written about 175 B.C.E., is set during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar of Persia (before this cut-off point)
• Others of the OT Pseudepigrapha are attributed to Adam, Enoch, Abraham, et alia, to get around this; thus, these patriarchs all come to be considered "prophets"

Apocalypticism in the OT Pseudepigrapha

• Definition of Apocalypse: "a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world."¹
• variety of apocalypses among the OT Pseudepigrapha
• earlier ones (i.e., probably before Jesus' time or thereabouts):
• 1 Enoch (II B.C.E.-I C.E.)
• Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (II B.C.E.)
• Treatise of Shem (I B.C.E.)
• Apocryphon of Ezekiel (I B.C.E.-I C.E.)
• Apocalypse of Zephaniah (I B.C.E.-I C.E.)
• Testament of Job (I B.C.E.-I C.E.)

Daniel and "the Human One" (or "Son of Man")

• Two parts to the book of Daniel, 1-6 & 7-12 (rest is appendix)
• The first part shows the power of God in terrible circumstances (e.g., "the prayer of Azariah in the furnace" and "the song of the three young men"), and lauds faithfulness to exclusive YHWH worship, even in the face of death; God has the power to save
• The second part is the apocalypse section
• "One like a human being" appears in Dan 7:13-14 vision of God's coming regent (language recalls covenant with David in 2 Sam 7: 8-13 and 2 Sam 23:5)
• Now therefore thus you shall say to my servant David: . . . I will make for you a great name, like the name of the great ones of the earth. And I will appoint a place for my people Israel and will plant them, so that they may live in their own place, and be disturbed no more . . . and I will give you rest from all your enemies. Moreover the LORD declares to you that the LORD will make you a house. When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your ancestors, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come forth from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me. . . . I will not take my steadfast love from him . . . . Your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me; your throne shall be established forever. In accordance with all these words and with all this vision, Nathan spoke to David.
• (2 Sam 23:3-7 NRSV) The God of Israel has spoken, the Rock of Israel has said to me: One who rules over people justly, ruling in the fear of God, {4} is like the light of morning, like the sun rising on a cloudless morning, gleaming from the rain on the grassy land. {5} Is not my house like this with God? For he has made with me an everlasting covenant, ordered in all things and secure. Will he not cause to prosper all my help and my desire? {6} But the godless are all like thorns that are thrown away; for they cannot be picked up with the hand; {7} to touch them one uses an iron bar or the shaft of a spear. And they are entirely consumed in fire on the spot.
• Conflicts on earth depicted as image of conflict between heavenly powers
• Explicitly teaches the resurrection of the dead at the end of the age (12:2)
• the main affinities of the NT are with the "historical" apocalypses of the type like Daniel (rather than the otherworldly journey type, like 1 Enoch)

Maccabean Martyrs

• struggle against religious persecution at time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Syria
• persecution an act of divine providence; God does not forsake, but disciplines the people (2 Macc 6:12-16)
• Antiochus is an adversary of God's people, hence an adversary of God
• martyrdom is preferable to apostasy, or even to simulation thereof (2 Macc 6:24-28)
• clear notion of afterlife (2 Macc 7:36) = resurrection??
• idea of vicarious suffering/redemption in the story of the martyrdom of the mother and her seven sons (2 Macc 7:37-38)
• the Outcome of the War
• The Hasmonean house wins the war against Antiochus IV Epiphanes (see 1 Macc 9)
• Israel becomes a more independent state, now under the rule of the high priest, as formerly had been the case in the second temple restoration of Ezra-Nehemiah
• The high priest is of the Hasmonean house, but not of the line of Aaron, which profanes the Temple in the view of strict law-abiding Jews
• see 1 Macc 10:21 re: Jonathan
• but 2 Macc 4:7-10 re: Jason, already during the time of Antiochus IV
• and then 2 Macc 10:1-8 re: Judas' recovery and purification of the Temple after the war (= Hanukkah)

Origins of the Essenes

• Some of these strict Jews separate and establish a community in the desert (the place of Israel's "honeymoon" with God), to await God's actions of purification of the Temple and restoration of full sovereignty to Israel under both a true (Aaronic) High Priest and Davidic King
• the Teacher of Righteousness seems to have been the founder of the sect, and was perhaps expected to return at the revelation of these two messianic figures

Rise of the Perushim (Pharisees)

• group seems also to arise about the time of the Maccabean revolt
• emphasis is on purity under the law in the face of social (and sometimes legal) pressure to accommodate to gentile way of life
• some connection with founding synagogues for study of the Torah
• is this a reaction to introduction of the Hellenistic gymnasium and process of education?
• beliefs:
• angelic mediators between God and humanity
• belief in resurrection
• messianic expectation

Jewish Attitudes toward Rome

• vary, but not much different than their previous attitudes toward the Seleucids
• Sadducees -- governing Aristocratic class in complicity with Rome; no messianic expectation and no apocalyptic agenda (after all, God rules through them)
• Pharisees -- merchant to artisan classes, in uneasy relationship with Rome; not always opposed, but not always in favor; some messianic expectation, so apocalyptic message would work with this group
• the Zealot movement -- Josephus associates with bands of brigands, but Rhoads and Crossan argue for distinction; groups with explicit messianic hope and theocratic revolutionary agenda; apocalyptic message would fit quite well with this group
• the Essenes have an explicitly theocratic and revolutionary agenda, but it is temporarily postponed while waiting for the end of the age and God's direct intervention in human affairs via the two expected messiahs; explicitly apocalyptic agenda (e.g., the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness), though they did not produce any works which fit the technical definition of apocalypse

Jesus and Apocalypticism

• Jesus spoke in parables
• parable v. allegory
• e.g., Sower v. interpretation (Mk 4 & //)
• e.g., the unjust judge (Lk 18:1-8) -- the widow will be vindicated
• e.g., the unjust steward (Lk 16:1-8a) -- one who acts in time of crisis is commended
• The Lord's Prayer asks for God's basileia, bread "for that day," no debts, and rescue in the time of trial
• Apocalypticism in Q?
• Jesus as God's eschatological messenger (see Kee)
• no passion narrative
• close link between wisdom and the role of the prophets, thus, not legal or practical wisdom
• Q is wisdom (sayings) tradition but "eschatological wisdom of an apocalyptic type," e.g., give up every human tie and obligation in devotion to announcement of the basileia (e.g., Lk 9:59-61; 12:22-31)
• membership not limited to more law-observant (cf. Daniel, 1 Enoch, Jubilees), but to those who see Jesus as God's final agent and his words, works, and gathered community as inauguration of basileia (Lk 11:20, 29-32)
• reversal of fortunes and sharing rule with God's agent in the Age to Come (Lk 22:28-30)
• Q community carries forth Jesus' ministry (Lk 7:22-23; 10:1-16, 21-22)
• get same mixed reception as did Jesus (Lk 10:16)
• expect rejection and martyrdom like the rest of God's emissaries (Lk 13:34-35)
• wisdom and apocalypticism both show influences of Hellenistic thought (e.g., successive ages of the world, empires portrayed as giant statues, astrology and astral speculation)
• apocalypticism has given up on the present world; looks beyond present suffering and persecution to vindication in the near future
• similarities to Cynic-Stoic traveling teacher-preachers of Hellenistic world, and prophetic-revolutionary leaders of pre-revolt era
• but, not nationalist message
• and charisma points not to inner divine nature of Jesus and followers but rather to God's imminent manifestation of judgment of the wicked and vindication of his own
• Jesus and the Zealots?
• see above, re: nationalism
• John the Baptist and Qumran?
• similarity of views
• desert location
• descendants of priestly families
• Canticle of Zechariah at birth of JBap is in line with Essene custom of composing hymns
• no fermented beverages
• ate locusts (acc. to Damascus Document, they must be roasted)
• ascetic lifestyle, including celibacy
• geographical propinquity with the Herods (Jericho and Macheronte)
• JBap criticizes Sadducees and Pharisees (acc. to Mt 3:7); similar to Essenes
• Teacher of Righteousness never represented himself as messiah; cf. Jn 1:21
• end of days predicted by the prophets had arrived (Mt 3:11-12, 8:8; cf. Commentary on the Book of  Habakkuk
• destruction of the world by fire (cf. DSD IV.12-13, VI.20; 2 Pet 2:12-13)
• need for penance, baptism
• according to Josephus (Antiquities XV 10:5), an Essene predicted JBap's glory to Herod the Great
• Qumran monks boarded young boys
• Jesus and Qumran?
• Similarities of Essene v. early Christian beliefs & practices
• baptism, white robe, renouncing Satan
• common meal as prototype of messianic banquet
• preparation for membership
• common goods
• hierarchical structure
• prophets, episkopoi
• communal discipline
• structure of catechism illustrates dualistic view of world
• hours of prayer: lauds, sexts, vespers; weekly liturgy
• NT authors cite same OT sources
• Jesus as priestly and kingly messiah
• eschatological outlook
• group under "New Covenant"