The Acts of Thecla
Sheila E. McGinn, Ph.D.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bovon, F., Junod, E., and Kaestli, J-D., eds., Les Actes Apocryphes des
Apôtres: Christianisme et Monde Païen, (Publications de la
Faculté de Théologie de l'Université de Genève,
no. 4; Labor et Fides, 1981). Burrus, V., Chastity as Autonomy: Women
in the Stories of the Apocryphal Acts (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1987).
Corrington, G. P., "The `Divine Woman'? Propaganda and the Power of Chastity
in the New Testament Apocrypha," Helios [Lubbock, Tex.] 13 (2, 1986):
151-161. Davies, S. L., The Revolt of the Widows: The Social World of
the Apocryphal Acts (New York: Winston/Seabury, 1980). Kraemer, R. S., "The
Conversion of Women to Ascetic Forms of Christianity," Signs (2,
1980) 6: 298-307. MacDonald, D. R., "The Role of Women in the Production
of the Apocryphal Acts of Apostles," Iliff Review 40 (4, 1983) 21-38;
ed., Semeia 38: The Apocryphal Acts of Apostles (Decatur, Ga.: Scholars
Press, 1986);
"From Audita to Legenda: Oral and Written Miracle Stories," Forum: Foundations & Facets 2
(4, 1986): 15-26. Ramsay, W. M., "The Acta of Paul and Thekla," The Church
in the Roman Empire Before A.D. 170 (G. P. Putnam, 1893; Baker Book House,
1954), 390-410. Schmidt, C., Acta Pauli aus der heidelberger koptischen
Papyrushandschrift Nr. 1 (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1965). Schneemelcher,
W., "Acts of Paul," New Testament Apocrypha, Revised Edition, W. Schneemelcher,
ed . (Cambridge: James Clark & Co.; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox,
1964), II: 213-270.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Acts of Thecla (AThl), also known as The Acts of Paul and Thecla or The Martyrdom of the Holy Proto-Martyr Thecla, is one of the few surviving texts of early Christianity which features a female figure in its key rôle. Once imbedded within the apocryphal Acts of Paul (APl), the AThl also circulated as an independent narrative.
Text
The
text of the AThl is attested in the Greek original and Latin translation
as well as in Old Syriac, Armenian, Old Slavonic, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic
versions.
A list of the most significant texts, and an English translation, can be found
in Wilhelm Schneemelcher's discussion of the "Acts of Paul" in the collection
of New Testament Apocrypha initiated by Edgar Hennecke.
Currently underway is a critical edition of the text of the APl (including
the AThl), by Willy Rordorf, which will be published in the new Brepols
Series Corpus Christianorum, Series Apocryphorum.
Methodological
Considerations
The
AAA long have been viewed as sharing a common tradition.
There are elements of the narratives which are repeated in the various AAA,
for example, the "chastity stories"
analyzed by Virginia Burrus. Thus, study of any one of the AAA cannot be done
in isolation from the others. Yet, each of the AAA also has its unique character
which cannot be overlooked. Both these points are particularly significant
for an understanding of the AThl, since the AThl was preserved
most often not as an independent Acts but as a part of the APl.
And yet, there is clearly a break in the narrative of the APl where
the AThl is inserted, and the AThl presents some viewpoints which
are remarkably distinct from the APl—e.g., in regard to both women
and Paul.
For
a decade or more, the androcentric bias of the textual tradition of early Christianity
has been widely recognized. Scholars taking a "sociology of knowledge" perspective
have also brought into question the very methods used for studying such texts—as
well as non-textual data—because of the biased nature of all these approaches
when it comes to uncovering the history of women. It is now a commonplace that
the surviving texts of the early Christian era are written and preserved by
the educated class. Thus, they cannot be viewed as being representative of
the views and interests of all persons in society; rather, one must be much
more circumspect about generalizing from the opinions of the elite to the general
population. At best, the texts may represent the views of the elite class about the
other classes.
It
is likewise the case with women: texts may include discussions of women, but
most often these discussions convey men's views of women, not women's views
of themselves. In the case of the AAA, while the models reflected there indeed "are
different from those which that church sanctioned . . . ,"
the fact that the AAA were not transmitted within the canon does not preclude
their having been affected by the redactional interests of an institutional
and patriarchal church. The re-contextualization of the Thecla legend within
the APl itself has the effect of subordinating the woman's story to
that of the man, surely a reflection of the patriarchal interests of the church.
One must be careful in trying to recover a "social history of women" from a
textual tradition which itself is elitist and androcentric.
These
facts make it imperative that one develop a significantly different stance
from which to utilize the traditional methods of scholarly analysis. Following
such feminist scholars as Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza
and Letty M. Russell,
and philosophical theorist Hans-Georg Gadamer,
I take a "hermeneutic of suspicion" as my basic stance or approach to the data
of the early Christian era.
Since
the hermeneutical stance, by definition, precedes methodology, one cannot speak
so much of a difference in method, as a difference in the way in which the
data gleaned from the application of traditional methods are assessed. Textual
analysis must be undertaken with the awareness that all the surviving texts
of early Christianity are filtered through an androcentric and patriarchal
perspective and, therefore, suppress (and often devalue) the activities and
experiences of women while highlighting and extolling the experiences and activities
of men. Hence, one must always ask not only what is being said by the author,
but also what is being assumed or ignored, marginalized or repressed.
This
difference in hermeneutical stance has striking effects both the questions
asked and the answers uncovered in an investigation of this type. The very
shape of this Commentary, including as it does the canonical as well
as some of the non-canonical scriptures, calls into question—even refutes—the
traditional assumption that the historical process of determining the content
and scope of the scriptural canon itself is free of such androcentric bias.
That this commentary on the AThl exists at all is the fruit of such
a new feminist critical stance toward the study of early Christianity.
A
brief review of a few of the traditional assumptions about the AAA, including
the AThl, will serve to illustrate this point. First, until quite recently
there was a strict boundary between the apocryphal and the canonical writings,
with the non-canonical writings being viewed as less important and less representative
of the history of early Christianity, and simply because they are non-canonical.
This imaginary boundary is now breaking down, and with it are going some assumptions
about such "apocryphal" writings—e.g., 1) that they were rejected because
they teach heresy; 2) that they represent forms of discipline which were aberrant
in their socio-historical context (i.e., they were produced by "schismatic" sects);
3) that, as a result, there is nothing for Christians to learn from the theology
and spirituality espoused by the apocryphal texts.
In
this introduction, I aim to refute the first two of these assumptions. A question
which will be in the background of this commentary, then, is why this text
became one of the "rejected"
works if doctrine and ascetic discipline are not viable reasons. I suggest
that the highlighting of a woman as an apostle of early Christianity had a
tremendous influence upon the decision of third century opponents of the APl to
brand it as heretical.
The
commentary which follows is based on the premise that, in the case of the AThl,
the third assumption is similarly groundless. Socio-historical analysis of
the AThl reveals not only the socio-cultural background of the audience
and author of the text which are examined, but also the social, economic, political
and religious forces in second century Asia Minor which shaped them and their
self-expressions. A study of this second century legend thus can aid in an
historical reconstruction of the early Christian movement. Finally, it can
be formative for development of a contemporary theological synthesis which
takes into account the experience and theology of women.
Date
Along
with most of the other Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles (AAA), this
text generally has been dated to the second half of the second century. Although
the earliest definitive evidence of a written text of the APl (including
the AThl) is from the Codex Claromontanus (fourth century C.E.),
Tertullian of Carthage (160-after 220) typically has provided the terminus ante quem for
any discussion of dating. However, there have been two flaws in these discussions:
(1) they have assumed a necessary connection between the AThl and the APl from
the start; (2) they have not distinguished between access to the written text
and knowledge of the Thecla story.
From
Hippolytus of Rome (ca. 170-235)
and Origen of Alexandria (185-254/5),
we know that the text of the APl was used in Rome and Alexandria by
the mid-third century; however, they do not cite the AThl. This is not,
therefore, reliable evidence for dating the AThl.
Tertullian's
evidence is ambiguous. Clearly he opposes those who use Thecla's example to
argue for women's ministerial authority.
Yet this case could as easily have been supported by an oral tradition as a
literary document. The most we can say, then, is that Tertullian's remarks
indicate that, by the beginning of the third century C.E. the
Thecla story was known in North Africa and was being used by its story tellers
to validate the active rôle of women in Christian ministries.
No
later than the fourth century, the text had become—at least for some—a
part of the canonical scriptures.
But for now its origins remain obscure.
Provenance
The AThl,
like the APl, originated in Asia Minor; both internal and external evidence
supports this claim.
More than this we cannot say, although later cultic traditions would support
Iconium or Seleucia.
Composition
There
are three main theories of composition of the anonymous work. (1) The AThl was
originally a literary work produced by an unknown presbyter of Asia Minor (mentioned
by Tertullian) who composed the APl as a whole.
(2) A community of "widows" (continent Christian women who were supported by
the institutional church) wrote the entire APl, including the AThl.
(3) The AThl has its origins in a legend tradition or oral folk story
told by women,
which subsequently took written form.
This
last theory of composition seems to make most sense of the existing data for
a variety of reasons. First, this theory posits the same historical pattern
as is evident in the composition of the Gospel narratives and which is explicitly
mentioned by the author of Luke-Acts—and there is no particular reason
to presume that the "apocryphal" works of the same genre followed a different
pattern. Second, it better accounts for the survival of a tradition which offers
such a positive portrayal of women while exhibiting an unsympathetic or even
hostile attitude toward men. Third, one can account for both the similarities
and differences between the AThl and the Hellenistic romantic novel
if one allows for common elements in their folktale origins, rather than requiring
literary dependence.
Finally, the theory of folk origins accounts for the wide variations to the
endings found in the extant versions of the AThl, since storytellers
are known to "translate" their folktales by using physical features of the
new locale, and adding place names and other such details to link the legend
with the immediate audience of the tale.
Authorship
The
question of the identity of the final author/ redactor of the APl, who
combined the Thecla legend with the pseudonymous Pauline letter III Corinthians
and the legend of Paul at Ephesus, remains to be decided.
Though the author's "orthodoxy" is widely accepted, the questions of the author's
sex and status in relation to the great church are more persistent.
First
of all, the author is a member of the great church in the sense of doctrinal
orthodoxy. While the AAA as a whole are marked by tendencies toward encratism—a
fact which may cause a certain amount of discomfort to the contemporary reader—this
rigorous asceticism should not cause the reader to judge the AThl as
heterodox for its own time.
The ancient authors who criticize the AThl never make asceticism an
issue; rather, they focus on its example of female authority.
And, as I have argued elsewhere, ascetic rigorism is simply the norm for II C.E. Christianity
in Asia Minor.
Thus, the author of the APl (and, hence, of the extant text of the AThl)
fits well within the second century Christian mainstream.
While
orthodoxy may have been a prerequisite to being an official of the Great Church,
not every orthodox writer was an official of the church (e.g., Tertullian was
not a presbyter). Of the four options that remain—male or female official,
layman or laywoman—the "female official" seems the least likely solution
to the question of our author's identity. It is difficult to reconcile Davies'
theory (see #2 above)—that the authors of the text were "widows" financially
supported by the great church—with the evidence of the backlash against
precisely these groups which we find in the Pastoral Epistles (e.g., 1 Tim
2:9-15, 5:3-16), particularly since the Pastorals have been dated earlier than
the text of the AThl. Beyond this, any suggestion of identity must remain
hypothetical.
While
it may have been more difficult (and expensive) for a "layman" or "laywoman" to
propagate a document such as this, it certainly was not impossible for an individual
of high social standing. A church official would have easy access to the channels
for transmitting such reports, but no doubt the same channels would be available
to an individual with good social connections (e.g., an aristocratic man or
woman). And the only ancient source who provides further information in this
regard is Tertullian, a hostile witness. While his account may be historically
accurate, it is also possible that he "enhanced" it, adducing an example of
a young presbyter being removed from his office to demonstrate just how dangerous
the AThl can be—at least to male church officials.
If
there is a change in sex from the tellers of the folktale to the author/redactor
of the text, we should expect the text to preserve some evidence of this. For
example, if the written text of the AThl shows evidence of shifts in
perception or treatment of such issues as female rôles and authority,
or in inconsistencies in the treatment and portrayal of male figures, then
it would imply that the author/redactor of the text was of a different sex
than the tellers of the tale. Since there is a consensus that the folktale
was transmitted by female storytellers, such evidence would imply that the
author/redactor was male. Dennis MacDonald has demonstrated that such "textualized
alterations of the story" indeed dominate the story of Thecla once it is imbedded
in the Acts of Paul.
The question that remains, then, is whether such "textualized alterations" affect
the AThl taken in isolation from the rest of the APl since, from
the third century onward, the Thecla legend certainly did circulate independently.
In
the commentary that follows, I will point out instances where I believe there
is evidence that such a reorientation has taken place in the transition from
the Thecla story to the written AThl. The theory that I will follow
in my interpretation is that the author/redactor of the text was a well-placed
male member of the mainline Christian church in Asia Minor who took a woman's
folktale about Thecla and "domesticated" it, giving Paul more prominence in
the story, and transforming it from the Acts of Thecla into the Acts
of Paul and Thecla.
PRESENT LITERARY CONTEXT IN THE ACTS OF PAUL
The AThl is
the third episode of eleven in the APl. It follows two quite fragmentary
sections relating: (1) Paul's post-conversion journey from Damascus to Jericho
(Jerusalem?), during which he baptizes a (male) lion; and (2) a sojourn of
Paul in Antioch (but which one?), during which he raises the son of Anchares
and Phila. The series of episodes which follows the AThl concern Paul's
activity in: (4) Myra, where he heals Hermocrates of dropsy and converts his
wife and children (two sons); (5) Sidon, where Thrasymachus and Cleon (with
their wives, Aline and Chrysa) are mentioned as disciples of Paul; (6) Tyre,
where Paul drives out demons and two men are named (Amphion and Chrysippus);
(7) Ephesus, where the baptized lion becomes a central figure; (8) Philippi,
where Paul raises from the dead Frontina, the daughter of Firmilla; (9) Corinth,
where Myrta prophesies that Paul will convert many in Rome; (10) the journey
to Italy; and (11) the martyrdom of Paul. A closer
look at episode two illustrates just how unsympathetic is the treatment of
women in these scenes of the APl. The sole female character is known
by name, but her significance and social station are characterized by her relationships
to men—she is Phila, the boy's mother (and the wife of Anchares). And,
contrary to the key male figures, she is depicted as hostile to Paul (she initially
prevents his entrance into the house and thereby denies him the opportunity
to work his miraculous intervention). Building on the opposition theme introduced via Phila,
the cure results in an attempt to stone Paul, and he is cast out of the territory
of Antioch. The redactor may even mean to imply that Phila participated in
these atrocities, since Anchares is exonerated but she is not.
And
this episode is not unique. It is striking that, as far as we can tell from
the fragmentary nature of the manuscripts, all of the key characters in these
other sections of the APl are male (even the animal!). Women do get
speaking parts in scenes seven, eight, and nine but, even so, the narrator
betrays no interest in the female figures themselves; they simply serve to
show or proclaim Paul's power and authority. And in scene seven, after attending
more closely to the interests and activities of Artemilla and Eubula,
and recounting their baptism by Paul, the narrator reports that Paul "dismissed
[Artemilla] to her husband, Hieronymus.
The women hear Paul's gospel, but clearly it is to have no effect on their
social status and marital relations. As it stands now, the lion plays a more
positive and significant rôle in this scene than do the women; he helps
to rescue Paul, whereas they provide the context for the persecution against
him. This dismissive and even antagonistic treatment of women provides the
present literary context of the AThl.
II. COMMENTARY
Paul's
Arrival in Iconium (1-4)
The AThl begins
(c. 1) with Paul's arrival in Iconium after his flight from Antioch. He has
two male traveling companions, one Demas
and Hermogenes the copper-smith,
who are depicted by the narrator as false brethren—i.e., being false
to Paul means being false to Christ (cf. 1 Tim 19b-20; 2 Tim 1:15; 2:17b-18a).
Paul's attitude toward them was to return good for evil,
loving them (cf. 2 Tim 2:24-26; 4:2; Tit 1:9; 2:8a) and teaching them the "all
the words of the Lord"
in a way that was appealing to them (cf. Prov 15:26b; 18:4; Col 4:6) and faithful
to the revelation Paul had received (cf. Acts 9; Gal 1:15-16a; 1 Tim 4:6; Tit
1:3; 2:1) of "the great acts of Christ."
The narrator indicates that this message is fully orthodox
by specifying that Paul's "words" include the Gospel "of the birth and of the
resurrection of the Beloved."
Thus, the gospel message according to the AThl includes the affirmation
of the incarnation and resurrection of Christ, contra gnosticism and
docetism.
(2)
An Iconian Christian named Onesiphorus anticipates Paul's arrival, and goes
with his family
to meet Paul. Though other individuals are mentioned by name (i.e., Simmias,
Zeno, Lectra), it is obvious that Onesiphorus is the central figure at this
point, for the report continues in the third person singular. The narrator
indicates that Onesiphorus wants to offer him the hospitality of his household.
To recognize Paul, Onesiphorus will have to rely on the description Titus had
given him,
for until now he had seen Paul "only in the spirit."
(3) Onesiphorus alone waits for Paul along the road to Lystra and recognizes
him as fitting the description of Titus.
Paul's lofty spiritual stature is indicated by the observation that "now he
appeared like a man, and now he had the face of an angel."
This description points to the mediating rôle of Paul; it recognizes
his humanity, while simultaneously implying that the message Paul conveys must
be heard not as mere human teaching but as the very word of God.
(4)
When they meet, Paul and Onesiphorus exchange formal greetings. Paul's companions,
Demas and Hermogenes, become "jealous" because Onesiphorus refers to Paul alone
as "servant of the blessed God."
Since the audience already knows that they are traitorous (c. 1), Onesiphorus'
powers of spiritual discernment (cf. Mal 3:18; 1 Cor 12:10) are made explicit
when he responds to their protest by remarking: "I do not see in you any fruit
of righteousness . . . ."
Nevertheless, he offers to them the hospitality of his home and, thereby, the
chance to repent (a chance which, we later discover, they refuse).
The
Gospel of Continence and the Resurrection (5-6)
(5)
Paul's arrival in Onesiphorus' house prompts "great joy, and bowing of knees
and breaking of bread, and the word of God concerning continence and the resurrection
. . . ."
None but the last of these phrases should strike us as remarkable. Great joy
is a typical Biblical sign of the presence and power of God.
Similarly, bowing the knee is a sign of true worship, the appropriate response
to God's presence (e.g., Gen 41:43; Is 45:23; Mt 27:29; Mk 15:19; Rom 14:11;
Phil 2:10.). The breaking of bread is an obvious reference to a eucharistic
meal as the context for Paul's preaching. However, the description of the Christian
message as "concerning continence and the resurrection" strikes an unfamiliar
chord, raising the question of the relationship between the two. The ensuing
report of Paul's proclamation (c. 5-6) suggests that the relationship between "continence" and
the resurrection is quite an intimate one.
Paul's
preaching consists of thirteen beatitudes (or macarisms), beginning with a
quotation of Mt 5:8 and using the word "pure" as a springboard to the related
themes of: chastity; renunciation of the world; fear of God and of God's word;
receiving the wisdom and understanding of Jesus Christ; keeping one's baptism "secure;"
and being merciful (Mt 5:7).
Those who exhibit these values will: see God (Mt 5:8); become temples of God;
be pleasing to God; "inherit God;"
be comforted (Mt 5:4); become angels of God;
be called "sons of the Most High" (cf. Mt 5:9); find rest "with the Father
and the Son;"
be in light;
judge angels (cf. 1 Cor 6:3); be rewarded; escape the day of judgment (Rom
2:3). Finally, "to them will God speak" (cf. Num 12:8; Ezek 2:1; Hos 2:14;
Dan 10:11).
This
set of macarisms shows marked variations from the beatitudes of Matthew or
Luke. There is a repeated emphasis on renunciation of the world and adoption,
through baptism, of a new "form" of "angelic" life: purity, continence, or
detachment from conjugal relations (cf. Mk 12:25). The use of these three categories
show it is not one's state in life—in this case, one's marital status—that
affects participation in the resurrection (cf. 1 Cor 7:17, 20, 24, 26). Rather,
it is sexual activity itself which has the impact. Those who have never married
(virgins) can enter into the resurrection if they are characterized by purity
(katharōs); those once married (divorced or widowed persons)
must now choose continence; those who "have wives" must live "as if they have
them not" (1 Cor 7:29). In the apocalyptic perspective of the AThl,
moral purity (which in this case includes sexual abstinence) becomes the grounds
for salvation.
One
should remark that, on this point, the AThl represents mainstream Christianity.
In I-II C.E. the Christian
movement as a whole is marked by apocalypticism, and particularly in the region
of Asia Minor. One has only to recall the Apocalypse of John, Papias, and the
Montanist movement as three key examples. This perspective was geographically
widespread, as is demonstrated by a few well-known examples: The Odes of
Solomon (Syria), the Hermetic writings (Rome), and the set of apocalypses
which were included in the Nag Hammadi Library (Egypt). The immediate discussion
in the AThl is grounded in Paul's apocalyptic theology as expressed
in 1 Cor 7, especially verses 29-35.
Also,
one should note that the AThl is not unique in recommending sexual abstinence
as the appropriate response to an apocalyptic situation. The teachings of Jesus
on the family—and particularly the saying that one must hate one's parents,
siblings, wife and children (Lk 14:26)—show that it pales in significance
next to the community of disciples, which is the only legitimate family (Mk
3:31-35 and parallels; cf. Jn 19:27). Add to this Paul's uncomfortable discussion
in 1 Cor 7, where he wants to recommend celibacy to all Christians yet concedes
that those who would be tempted to sexual immorality (porneia) would
do better to concentrate on the basics of moral behavior. In Jewish circles,
there are the well-known examples of the celibate Essene community at Qumran
and the Therapeutae.
Clearly
the AThl does emphasis sexual abstinence, but this emphasis should not
be taken as implying that continence is the sole requirement for attaining
the life of the resurrection. For example, it would be ludicrous to suggest
that the AThl teaches that one could be an unrepentant liar and thief
but, if continent, still receive blessing from God. `Departing from the form
of this world' includes much more than sexual purity; but these other moral
virtues are assumed by the text because they are points on which there is widespread
public agreement (by Christians, Jews, and pagans). The point of contention
is sexual abstinence, so it receives center stage.
Among
Christians who do embrace a life of continence, virgins have a special status.
The last and longest of the beatitudes extols their choice, and claims that
they receive a special blessing from God:
Blessed are the bodies of the virgins, for they shall be well pleasing to God, and shall not lose the reward of their purity.
For the word of the Father
shall be for them a work of salvation
in the day of his Son,
and they shall have rest for ever and ever.
![]()
As will be shown throughout the rest of this commentary, this passage is pivotal
to understanding the AThl. It serves as a synopsis of the theology of
the entire Thecla story.
As
far as we can see, the eschatological "reward of their purity" is the same
for the virgins as for other continent Christians: participation in the resurrection
and divine "rest." However, the virgins receive a foretaste of this reward
even now, for God speaks to them (c. 5, beatitude #3) and the word of God becomes
their work of salvation. In other words, they receive the gift of prophecy.
This gift of the "understanding of Jesus Christ" brings conversion in the recipients
(c. 6, #10), and the "wisdom of Jesus Christ" validates their salvation, bringing
others to call them
"sons of the Most High" (c. 6, #8).
However,
one should not misconstrue this wisdom and understanding of Jesus Christ,
"the word of the Father," as if it were private revelation, with validation
attendant upon the final coming. On the contrary, this prophetic word becomes
the present "work" of the virgins: through public proclamation they bring others
to salvation, thereby earning the title "sons of the Most High;"
and in their prophetic actions—both of renouncing sexual relations and
embracing an itinerant life of public ministry to the Word—they embody
God's present work of salvation among women and men. The life of Thecla provides
the key illustration of this.
Thecla
Hears the Word of the Virgin Life (7)
(7)
While Paul addresses this sermon to the Christians gathered in Onesiphorus'
house, Thecla sits at a nearby window in the house of her mother, Theocleia.
The reader's curiosity is piqued by the fact that Thecla ("a virgin") is identified
first in terms of her relationship with another woman (her mother) rather than
a man. To squelch any questions, however, this is immediately rectified; we
are told that Thecla is "betrothed to a man (named) Thamyris." Thecla is entranced
by the word Paul preaches, comes to believe it, and will not turn away
from the window for any reason, day or night. Seeing that Paul's audience included "many
women and virgins," Thecla herself desires "to stand in Paul's presence" (cf.
Ps 1:4; 5:5; 24:3; Lk 1:19) and hear the gospel. Her conversion has come about
entirely on the basis of hearing the word (Jn 20:29); but her enactment of
that word will be based upon vision (cf. Jn 3:11; 9:37) and participation in
the Christian community, here represented by Paul and his audience.
Theocleia
and Thamyris Conspire against Thecla (8-10)
(8)
Thecla's mother sends for her fiancé, who is described as coming "in
great joy as if he were already taking her in marriage." This image strikes
a note of dissonance for two reasons: first, the reader has just been told
that Thecla was "rejoicing exceedingly" in her new-found faith; second, it
raises a threat to this new faith because Thecla should receive it as she is
and not change her state in life by becoming married.
Thamyris asks Theocleia for permission to see Thecla. To prepare him for this
interview, Theocleia relates to him an unsympathetic account of what has happened
to her daughter.
(9)
Theocleia suggests that Thecla is under a spell, "taken captive" by Paul's
message of exclusive monotheism and chastity. Theocleia plays on Thamyris'
civic virtue and self-interest, denouncing Paul as "upsetting the city of the
Iconians, and thy Thecla in addition." The mother views Thecla's heartfelt
faith as a "fearful passion," away from which Thamyris must try to woo her.
(10)
Thamyris approaches Thecla with a heart divided: he loves her yet fears her
"distraction," her foreign "passion." Arguing from his position of superiority
as the controlling man in her life,
he gives voice to the cultural perception of her behavior as bringing her
"shame"—her passionate distraction by another man (Paul), for Thamyris,
constitutes a betrayal of their relationship.
He commands Thecla to restore her honor by returning to him—which would
entail denying her conversion to the gospel of "continence and resurrection" taught
by Paul. Her mother also intervenes, but Thecla makes no response to either
of them. Though the entire household goes into mourning—Thamyris, mother,
and maidservants—Thecla pays no heed. She remains entirely devoted to
Paul's word,
and "[does] not turn away."
There
are three quite striking features of this passage. First, the focus is on the
woman in her three socially-approved rôles, which are listed in their
order of importance in the story: wife, daughter, household mistress; this
is made clear by the silence regarding Thecla's name in the remark about the
household mourning. Second, it is interesting that the entire household is
viewed as female; Thamyris is the only male mentioned as entering this house
of women, and his entrée is controlled by women (Theocleia who calls
him, and Thecla who provides the basis for the call). Finally, and most significantly,
Thecla's behavior illustrates a markedly counter-cultural contention that female
honor arises from a woman's faithfulness to God alone, not to a man.
The
attempted seduction/mourning scene sets up a conversion versus anti-conversion
dichotomy which clarifies what is at stake for Thecla (and, by analogy, for
the audience of the AThl) in her acceptance or rejection of Thamyris,
her betrothed. This dichotomy undergirds the remainder of Thecla's story. The
chart below outlines its key features.
TRUE CONVERSION v. FALSE CONVERSION (Apostasy)
Conversion Anti-conversionEvaluation True False
Belief Virginal life Married life
Proponent Paul Thamyris
Attitude of Believer Whole-hearted Divided heart
Emotional Response Great
joy Jealousy,
wrath
Authority God's
word Social
custom
Male/Female Relations Both under God Woman submissive
Family Christian community Natural family
Location Outside the house Inside the household
Morality Chaste, virtuous Profligate
Ideal Rôles: Itinerant preacher Faithful wife
Work of salvation Work of procreation
Results: Break with family Family integration
Social rejection Social acceptability
Persecution, rescue Humiliation, failure
Vision, prophecy Cut off from God
Reward: Power to judge Bitter judgement
Beatitude Condemnation
Thamyris
Conspires with Demas and Hermogenes (11-14)
(11)
Thamyris responds to Thecla's private inaction with quick and public action
of his own: he goes into the street to find support for a case against Paul,
whom he classifies as a "false teacher" and "deceiver" because of his preaching
against marriage. He accosts two quarrelsome men and offers them a bribe for
any information against Paul, taking care to mention his high position in the
city—which no doubt is intended to suggest that Thamyris will use it
for or against the men he addresses, depending upon their degree of cooperation.
(12)
We are not surprised to discover that the two men are the very same Demas and
Hermogenes who accompanied Paul to Iconium. Their denial of Paul is couched
in language reminiscent of Peter's betrayal of Jesus; thereby Onesiphorus'
previous assessment (c. 4) of Paul's two companions is shown to be accurate,
providing a sort ofprophecy-fulfillment motif. Indeed, they incite Thamyris
further by claiming that Paul forbids marriage itself, teaching that "there
is no resurrection for you, except ye remain chaste and do not defile the flesh,
but keep it pure" (cf. Rev 14:4).
A
methodological caution is appropriate at this point. Because this summary of
Paul's preaching derives from hostile witnesses, it is not at all clear that
it is intended as an accurate depiction of the theology of the author/redactor.
On the contrary, having just heard the men's denial of any affiliation with
Paul (a statement which the audience knows is a lie), the reader should also
be on guard against any further statements they make.
Thamyris'
statement that the Paul of the AThl "teaches that young men and women
should not marry" is accurate. The conclusion drawn by Demas and Hermogenes—that "otherwise
there is no resurrection for you . . ."—may be a logical conclusion of
the beatitudes of c. 5-6, but it goes beyond anything that is directly taught
by Paul (or Thecla) in the AThl. As discussed above, there are a variety
of virtues and states of life which are extolled by the beatitudes. This does
not imply that one must engaged in all of them in order to be blessed
by God (i.e., in order to receive the reward of the resurrection).
The
crux of the issue is the understanding of a true marriage. The AThl certainly
permits a marriage in which both partners are continent; this a true marriage
because it supports rather than interferes with one's relationship to God,
the true Spouse. In the opinion of the Roman Empire and Græco-Roman society
generally (which is represented by Demas and Hermogenes), a marriage without
sexual relations and procreation constitutes no marriage at all; individuals
in such non-procreative marriages are penalized under Roman law.
Thus, they infer that Paul forbids marriage.
(13)
Finding the men sympathetic, Thamyris invites them to his home and plies them
with food and drink to obtain their cooperation in recovering Thecla for his
wife. A romantic element is introduced in the remark that Thamyris "loved" Thecla.
His sexual impulse toward her, here and later in the story, is in sharp contrast
to Thecla's resolute emotional and physical chastity. (14) The two traitors
urge Thamyris to denounce Paul to the governor on the charge of being a Christian
teacher; this will bring about Paul's execution, and restore to Thamyris his
intended wife.
They offer to teach Thamyris a different gospel, one which turns the tables
on the word preached by Paul: only those who are married can experience the
resurrection, for "it has already taken place in the children whom we have."
Knowledge of the true God is what resurrection means (cf. Mk 15:4; Col 3:1-4;
Eph 1:17-21; 2:5-7). The realized eschatology of this anti-gospel is in sharp
relief to the apocalyptic framework of the gospel of the AThl.
Paul's
Arrest and Hearing (15-17)
(15)
Thamyris, driven by fleshly desires (cf. Gal 5:13-21, 26), takes a mob to Onesiphorus'
house (cf. Mk 14:43, 48-50), charges Paul with breaking his marriage, and carries
him off to the governor while the crowd shouts accusations of sorcery and invites
the death penalty (cf. Mt 27:20). (16) Thamyris makes his charge before the
Proconsul, heedless of the suggestion of Demas and Hermogenes that he accuse
Paul as a Christian. Still, the governor considers Thamyris' charge to be "no
light accusation."
(17) Paul responds with a summary of his teaching. The synopsis emphasizes
a monotheistic doctrine of God who is transcendent, who desires to save humanity,
and who has authorized Paul to preach a message of conversion from sin—which
is connected with "corruption and impurity, all pleasure and death . . . ."—to
faith in God's Son, who brings "knowledge of propriety, and love of truth." Paul
concludes by turning the claim of divine authorization for his teaching into
a challenge to the Proconsul (cf. Acts 26:19). The governor imprisons Paul
until he can give him "a more attentive hearing" (cf. Acts 24:25).
Thecla
and Paul in Prison (18-20)
(18)
At this point in the narrative, Thecla shifts from the social world of her
mother's house to the public forum, from the Græco-Roman household to
the Christian community. Her situation has been no less an imprisonment than
Paul's, as is made clear by the fact that she must bribe not only the jailer
to enter Paul's cell, but also the doorkeeper to exit her
house. Thecla takes the posture of a disciple, sitting at Paul's feet, listening
to his proclaimation (cf. Luke 10:39), and uniting herself with Paul's witness
by kissing his bonds. This set of ritual actions serves to initiate Thecla
into the Christian community,
and it increases her faith (cf. Phil 1:13-14; 2:25).
(19)
The persecution motif is now repeated with Thecla as the key figure: she becomes
a
"hunted" woman, having been "betrayed" by one of her household. Thecla is found
to be Paul's comrade in bonds,
and a report of the incident is made to the governor. (20) At first Paul alone
is haled before the judgment seat,
leaving Thecla behind, who takes Paul's place in prison. The narrator
expresses this quite graphically: "Thecla rolled herself upon the place where
Paul taught as he sat in the prison." This scene forms Thecla's call narrative
(cf. 1 Kgs 19:19-21), and suggests that Thecla will become the prophet to succeed
Paul, as Elisha did Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16). The report is unusual in that Thecla
initiates the action; there is no vision from God nor invitation from Paul.
But, both such experiences do arise later, showing that her actions are validated
directly by God and indirectly through God's messenger, Paul.
Then
Thecla is proven to be a true disciple, following in Paul's footsteps: the
governor commands that she also come before the judgement seat. Her (now typical)
response of joy and exultation illustrates her faith (cf. Mt 5:10, 25:36; AThl 6
#11), and signals her faithfulness unto death.
At
this point in the narrative, center stage begins to shift to Thecla while the
rôle of Paul diminishes. Standing before the governor, the mob focusses
on the male culprit: they again accuse Paul of sorcery (a charge which indirectly
implicates Thecla as well, since it indicates that Thecla's refusal to follow
social convention is a sign of insanity or demon possession, cf. c. 8-9).
However, Paul's opponents are unsuccessful in sustaining the charge, for "the
governor heard Paul gladly concerning the holy works of Christ . . . ." It
is the governor who turns attention to the female figure, asking Thecla to
account for her refusal to marry Thamyris
"according to the law of the Iconians."
Thecla remains silent, "looking steadily at Paul."
Theocleia herself instigates the call for the death penalty against Thecla, "the
lawless . . . no-bride." And it seems that the mourning scene of c. 10 has
come to fulfillment, with Thecla as no-bride, disowned as daughter, and having
renounced her rôle as household mistress as well. Thecla is outside the
law (anomos) and beyond control because she has put herself outside
the patriarchal household; she has confirmed the unspoken charge against her.
Only death remains.
A
striking characteristic of this section is the use of the standard topos of
conversion literature: the ruler who hears the Christian message gladly, and
sometimes nearly converts himself (cf. Acts 26). This motif is used to demonstrate
the social acceptability of the Christian message and its harmony with Græco-Roman
values—in spite of the negative reaction of some sectors of the population.
However,
its effect here is two-edged, since Paul is freed but Thecla is condemned,
implying that Christianity is permissible for men, but not for women. In her
study of female martyrologies, Francine Cardman notes that "Defiance
of the conventions of female behavior is even more disturbing to the authorities
than the Christians' refusal to submit to their directives."
This point certainly is borne out in the case of Thecla.
Thecla's
Miraculous Deliverance from the Pyre (21-22)
(21)
The governor orders Paul to be scourged and driven out of the city, and condemns
Thecla to be burned as her mother had asked (cf. Mt 10:21-23, 35f; Lk 12:52f).
This neatly eliminates Paul from the scene, and should serve to complete the
transition of attention from him to Thecla. But, although the official attention
span is brief and Paul is forgotten, Thecla, like a sheep without a shepherd
(Ezek 34:8; Zech 10:2; cf. Acts 8:32), still searches for him. In a striking
twist (which makes explicit the hint in c. 20 and will be repeated in later
parts of the narrative), we find that Paul has acted not like a shepherd, but
like a hireling: he has abandoned her.
Looking for Paul, Thecla has a vision of the Lord, which she takes as a sign
of divine protection.
With Paul's disappearance and her impending martyrdom, the resolute virgin
is beginning to reap the rewards of the beatitudes: vision, comfort, mercy.
(22)
Once in the theater, youths and maidens prepare the pyre—a detail which
emphasizes the counter-cultural nature of Thecla's decision to embrace "the
gospel of continence." Thecla enters the scene naked, causing the governor
to marvel at "the power that was in her." This is a foreshadowing of what
will come. Mounting the pyre, she stretches out her arms to form a Cross.
The fire is kindled, but it does not touch her (cf. Mart. Polycarp 15.1).
God's mercy on Thecla is manifested in a sudden hailstorm which quenches the
fire, and kills some of the audience as well.
Thecla
is Reunited with Paul (23-25)
(23)
Meanwhile we find Paul fasting with Onesiphorus and his entire family
in an open tomb (an obvious resurrection motif) on the road from Iconium. Preparing
to break their fast, on the sixth day Paul sends one of the boys to buy bread;
the day for breaking the fast will be the seventh, an obvious reference to
the Sabbath. Having escaped the fire, Thecla again searches for Paul and meets
the boy, who takes her to him. (24) They come to the tomb while Paul is praying
that God will rescue Thecla. Thecla responds by offering, for the first time,
a prayer of her own, thanking God for her rescue "that I might see Paul!" Paul
offers a final thanksgiving, for God's prompt response to his first intercession.
(25) There follows a scene of rejoicing and sharing in a eucharistic meal.
Though "all of them" rejoice and participate in this agape (love feast),
only the men (Paul and Onesiphorus) are named.
Thecla
urges Paul to accept her as a disciple and co-worker, arguing that she will
cut her hair short
and follow wherever he goes (cf. Ruth 1:16-17; Mt 8:19). Paul objects on two
grounds: (a) the inevitable hardships posed by such a journey; (b) the possibility
of a second, more serious temptation whereby Thecla may be overcome and "play
the coward!" Both objections bear tremendous irony: the first, because it
implies that being burned at the stake is a minor inconvenience (c. 22); the
second, because of Paul's own traitorous behavior (c. 20-21). However, Thecla
simply presses on, asking for baptism ("the seal in Christ") which she believes
will preserve her from temptation. That Paul declines to do so is one of the
most remarkable features of the story thus far, and it piques the audience's
interest to discover how this baptism will occur.
Thecla's
Arrival and Arrest in Antioch (26-27a)
(26)
The narrator swiftly shifts scenes, concluding this first portion of the AThl with
Paul sending Onesiphorus cum suis back to Iconium, and then taking
Thecla with him to Antioch.
So, in spite of Paul's protestations, Thecla has won the argument. But, no
sooner have they entered the city when Paul's words about her beauty being
a potential source of temptation take on a prophetic cast—but with a
twist—when Alexander falls in "love" at first sight of Thecla. The temptation
is not Thecla's but men's! Thecla is resolute and unaffected by Alexander's
protestations of love, yet she is the one who suffers persecution. Alexander
conveys the typical assumption of Græco-Roman society, that every woman
must belong to a man. Since Thecla is with Paul, she must belong to him, and
so Alexander attempts to win Paul's favor with bribes. Now Paul succumbs to
temptation too: not only does he abandon Thecla (as in c. 21), but this time
he actively denies her as well ("I do not know the woman . . . ."), thus repeating
the duplicitous behavior of Demas and Hermogenes (c. 12). Since Paul has disowned
any connection with Thecla, Alexander presumes she is free for the taking,
and attempts to rape her in the street. Paul deserts Thecla, and she is left
to defend herself. She invokes God's protection
and bests Alexander, baring his head of the crown with the imperial insignia.
(27)
Alexander accuses Thecla before the governor
and she is condemned to fight the wild beasts. Alexander's sponsorship of the
games reminds the audience of his beastly behavior toward Thecla, and gives
this judgement the flavor of a personal vendetta because of her refusal.
At
this point in the narrative, we are not told the precise charge against Thecla—whether
it is for insulting the imperial symbol or for refusing Alexander's sexual
advances (which symbolize patriarchal control of women through the household
structure). Although we later discover that Thecla is said to be "Guilty of
Sacrilege," the narrator has made it clear that such a charge would never have
been levied against her if she had submitted to Alexander's desire. This implies
that, in the story teller's view, the rejection of Roman authority and a woman's
refusal of sexual activity are functionally equivalent and need not be distinguished.
As was mentioned above, this seems to accord with the view of Græco-Roman
society as a whole.
Thecla
and the Lioness Vanquish the Beasts (27b-35)
With
this, the narrative division between males and females becomes complete. Men
procure Thecla's condemnation, while women protest the judgement as "evil" and "godless" (a
particularly interesting evaluation, since it is reverses the charge against
Thecla). Thecla is
"protected" by a rich woman, Tryphaena, who is identified neither as wife nor
widow but as the bereaved mother of a daughter. (28) In procession with the
beasts, Thecla rides a "fierce lioness"
who licks her feet in submission! Afterwards, obedient to a prophecy from her
daughter in a dream, Tryphaena takes Thecla into her household as an adopted
daughter.
(29)
In response to Tryphaena's welcome, Thecla offers an intercessory prayer for
the salvation of Tryphaena's daughter, Falconilla. Her status as confessor/proto-martyr
authorizes this rôle as intercessor (which increases from this point
onward), illustrating the rising II-III C.E. belief
in the "priestly" power of martyrs and confessors to confer divine forgiveness.
Her address to "Thou God of Heaven, Son of the Most High" re-introduces positive
masculine imagery. However, it becomes clear in the next section that God is
the only masculine figure who can be trusted.
(30)
When Alexander comes to take Thecla to the arena, Tryphaena's invocation of
God's protection makes him flee in fear.
(31) The governor then sends soldiers to take her, but the women retain the
upper hand. Tryphaena herself leads Thecla to the games, while Thecla prays
God to reward her protectress.
(32)
Once at the arena, we find a scene of great tumult,
which seems designed to remind the audience of primordial chaos, with the roaring
of the beasts and clamor of the crowd depicting the primeval struggle between
good and evil—only now it is revisited as God against Rome, Thecla against
her persecutors. The men in the crowd call for Thecla to be brought to judgement;
but the women take her part, themselves condemning the city for "this lawlessness"
(anomia; cf. c. 20) against Thecla, and calling the proconsul to "slay
us all" in solidarity with her.
(33)
Thecla is taken from the protection of women, stripped, and cast into the arena
with the wild beasts. At this point, we find an interesting reversal of the
typical way the sexes are depicted: whereas men are usually active and mentioned
by name, with women passive and (if mentioned) not named, Thecla and Tryphaena
are both named but not the male officials, whose actions merely are implied.
The male/female tension is highlighted when the "fierce lioness"
fights a lion and bear sent to attack Thecla. This shows that female unity
with Thecla and her message is not limited to the human species. Alienation
between women and the female members of the animal kingdom (symbolized by the
lioness) is overcome through Thecla's faith. The lioness essentially is martyred
fighting for the human proto-martyr Thecla; and the mourning of "the women" (in
the crowd) for the lioness completes this circle of solidarity.
(34)
Many beasts are set upon Thecla "while she stood and stretched out her hands
and prayed" (as in c. 22, conforming her body to the image of the cross). Concluding
her oration, Thecla baptizes herself "In the name of Jesus Christ"—an
action which receives stereophonic divine approbation: a flash of lightning
and a cloud of fire. Although all men oppose her and the faithful lioness falls,
God remains Thecla's help and protector.
The
women in the audience now take an active part in the struggle, throwing flowers
and perfumes which overpower the new beasts sent by the men. Alexander recommends
that the governor tie Thecla between two bulls; but this plan is thwarted by
the divine fire, which burns through the ropes.
Victorious,
Thecla Returns to the Women (36-39)
(36)
Finally, Tryphaena faints from watching this terrible ordeal, and "the whole
city was alarmed," taking her for dead. The tables now turn on Alexander, who
fears for his life because Tryphaena is a kinswoman to Caesar. By thus, for
the first time, identifying Tryphaena by her relationship to a man, the narrator
quite pointedly shows that Alexander (who represents the governor and other
men as well) is not converted by the series of divine miracles on Thecla's
behalf, but is convinced to desist when he perceives another man as posing
a threat to him.
(37)
The governor summons Thecla, asking who she is that the beasts have not harmed
her; Thecla takes the opportunity to gives a brief summary of the Christian
faith. (38) She accepts the governor's offer of clothing, but such garments
pale in comparison to her expectation that she will be clothed by God "with
salvation in the day of judgement." The governor decrees Thecla's freedom,
and "all the women" praise the one true God "who has delivered Thecla!" All
the city is shaken by the sound. It is not simply the loud noise which "shakes
the city," but the content of the acclamation: God protects and delivers a
woman who opposes the sex-rôle definitions of the city, showing God's
power over the culture as a whole. Female chastity and divine power are victorious
over male law and aggression.
(39)
Thecla released and Tryphaena revived, the two women are reunited amid Tryphaena's
affirmation of belief in the resurrection. She who has now inherited Thecla's
faith responds by making Thecla her lawful heir. Thecla stays in Tryphaena's
house to teach the word of God, and most of the maidservants also are converted; "and
there was great joy in the house,"
an image which harks back to the description of Thecla's own conversion (c.
7). At this point, the narrator completes the process of replacing Paul with
Thecla. Thecla herself is a successful evangelist, and Paul is nowhere in the
picture.
Thecla
Commissioned to Preach the Gospel (40-43)
(40)
Yet Thecla again seeks Paul. Dressed like a man, brings youths and maidens
on her journey to find him.
"Astonished" to see her, Paul wonders "whether another temptation was not upon
her." This is a fascinating editorial remark, for it suggests that Thecla
previously has not only suffered temptation, but succumbed to it. The story
itself, however, shows that Thecla has been severely tested and has been faithful,
while Paul repeatedly has failed her. Thecla rebuffs Paul's suspicion
by proclaiming her baptism, for which she claims divine authority.
(41) Paul
leads her into the house of a man named Hermias to hear Thecla's account, thus
inviting her to preach there. This shows that Paul validates her ministry as
teacher of the gospel to men—even himself—as well as to
women. In response, ". . . Paul marvelled greatly and the hearers were confirmed
and prayed for Tryphaena." Thus Paul and the congregation recognize God's
power in Thecla and count her story as "gospel." Thecla announces her intent
to return as a missionary to her own city, and Paul (rather belatedly) commissions
her as an apostle: "Go and teach the word of God!" Thecla leaves gifts for
the poor, and departs for home.
(42)
Upon reaching Iconium, Thecla now enters the house of Onesiphorus and takes
Paul's place as teacher of "the oracles of God." (43) Though Thamyris is dead,
Thecla finds her mother alive, and witnesses the faith to her. After this,
she goes to Seleucia, where she continues her ministry of preaching and teaching "the
word of God," finally dying the death of the faithful.
III. CONCLUSION
There
are striking contrasts between the portrayal of women in the AThl in
comparison with the other portions of the APl. This makes it clear that
the redactor of the APl had a markedly different view of the place of
women in early Christianity than did the story tellers who relayed the Thecla
account. The redactor who included the Thecla story in the APl focussed
on the significance of men in early Christianity, and particularly on the person
of Paul. Every other man in the APl pales in comparison with Paul. But
women are not only subordinated to Paul; when they are significant characters,
they are either opponents of Paul or the vehicle for men's opposition to him.
The
final message of these sections of the APl is that women—even
women sympathetic to the Christian message—are dangerous to the Christian
mission. Whether sympathetic or not, they cause persecution of authentic (male)
Christian preachers. Female converts threaten to upset the social order—a
threat which should be controlled by sending the women back to their husbands
(cf. 1 Cor 14:33b-36; 1 Tim 2:9-15).
The AThl creates
a nearly perfect reversal of this message. While both men and women are interested
in the Christian message, it is the women who are depicted as faithful to it.
Even Paul, the chief male figure, is portrayed as lukewarm at best. He betrays
Thecla more than once, and leaves her to suffer persecution while he escapes
from the scene. Paul opposes her baptism and preaching ministry, while God
validates it by miraculous signs and by the number of converts she makes. Belatedly,
Paul concurs with God's call of Thecla to ministry.
Thecla's
counter-cultural choice of virginity is not her own idea, but the word of God
which she accepts whole-heartedly. God ratifies this choice in two ways: by the
resulting persecution, which proves that she is faithful to the Lord (Mt 5:11-12);
and by her victory over such opposition. Even the death of Thamyris, noted at
the end of the legend, shows that Thecla has chosen the better part; the life
of the flesh is transitory, while the virginal life leads to the resurrection.
The vibrant Thecla cult, which survives well into the fifth century, demonstrates
the attraction such a message had for Christian women.
The AThl nowhere
suggests that a woman can be saved only by leading "the virginal life"
chosen by Thecla. But it does seem to suggest that such a lifestyle is the
prerequisite for a woman's involvement in Christian ministry. And, although
Thecla's adoption of a man's dress and hairstyle may mean that a woman must
become "manly" to be allowed to refuse marriage and pursue a public career
as did Thecla,
this is understandable as a second century evaluation of the practical situation.
If we reject such an evaluation, it does not mean that we must reject the story
itself.
The AThl reports
the tale of a woman who was grasped by the message of Christ, and who gave
up everything to devote her life to living and preaching this message. In spite
of tremendous misfortune, Thecla remained faithful to the apocalyptic gospel "of
continence and the resurrection." Her vision of Christ strengthened her to
endure to the end. In this basic message, the AThl fits well with the
other Christian literature of the second and third centuries. And by presenting
a Christian woman in the rôle of apostle, the AThl opens possibilities
for imagination and action among Christian readers today.